la montagne sainte victoire Paul Cézanne

5. Paul Cezanne - Montagne Sainte-Victoire, 1887, 67 x 92 cm. The mountain is seen from a vantage point to the west of Aix, near Cézanne’s family home, with the valley of the Arc in the foreground and an aqueduct to the far right. The mountain oscillates in the afternoon heat, its rock faces registering as planes of blue and gold. In the foreground are square slices of houses and floating green fields.

Paul Cézanne

One of the most influential artists in the history of twentieth-century painting, Paul Cézanne (1839–1906) has inspired generations of modern artists. Generally categorized as a Post-Impressionist, his unique method of building form with color and his analytical approach to nature influenced the art of Cubists, Fauvists, and successive generations of avant-garde artists. Beginning to paint in 1860 in his birthplace of Aix-en-Provence and subsequently studying in Paris, Cézanne's early pictures of romantic and classical themes are imbued with dark colors and executed with an expressive brushwork in the tradition of Eugène Delacroix (1798–1863). Dramatic tonal contrasts and thick layers of pigment (often applied with a palette knife) exemplify the vigor in which Cézanne painted during the 1860s, especially apparent in the portrait series of his uncle Dominique Aubert, variously costumed as a lawyer, an artist, and a monk (53.140.1; 1993.400.1). This kind of costume piece is reminiscent of Édouard Manet's Spanish paintings of the 1860s

While the three works that Cézanne exhibited in 1874 at the first Impressionist exhibition were not fully in line with the Impressionist technique of quickly placing appliqués of pigment on the canvas, he did eventually abandon his relatively dark palette in exchange for brilliant tones and began painting out-of-doors, encouraged by the Impressionist painter Camille Pissarro (1830–1903). His Bathers (1976.201.12) of 1874–75 demonstrates a developed style and tonal scale in one of his first paintings of this theme, which recurs in his oeuvre. The landscape of Bathers has the brilliance of plein-air painting, while the figures, drawn from the artist's imagination (Cézanne rarely painted nudes from life), reconcile themselves within this setting. The complex process of drawing inspiration from these two sources, nature and memory, would occupy Cézanne in his later work. The Fisherman (Fantastic Scene) (2001.473), of about 1875, shares the same bright tones as Bathers, while its subject recalls the themes of fantasy familiar from the 1860s; it too could be the product of two polar sources.

In his still-life paintings from the mid-1870s, Cézanne abandoned his thickly encrusted surfaces and began to address technical problems of form and color by experimenting with subtly gradated tonal variations, or "constructive brushstrokes," to create dimension in his objects. Still Life with Jar, Cup, and Apples shows Cézanne's rejection of the intense contrasts of light and shadow of his earlier years in exchange for a refined system of color scales placed next to one another. The light of Impressionism resonates in this work, but signs of a revised palette are especially apparent in his muted tones. Still Life with Apples and a Pot of Primroses (51.112.1), a mature work from the early 1890s, reveals Cézanne's artistic evolution and mastery of this style of building forms completely from color and creating scenes with distorted perspectival space. The objects in this painting, such as the fruit and tablecloth, are rendered without use of light or shadow, but through extremely subtle gradations of color. In such still lifes as Dish of Apples (1997.60.1) of about 1875–77, as in his landscapes, Cézanne ignores the laws of classical perspective, allowing each object to be independent within the space of a picture while the relationship of one object to another takes precedence over traditional single-point perspective.

From 1882, Cézanne executed a substantial number of landscape pictures of his native Aix and of L'Estaque, a small fishing village near Marseille, in which he continues to concentrate on pictorial problems of creating depth. Here Cézanne used an organized system of layers to construct a series of horizontal planes, which build dimension and draw the viewer into the landscape. This technique is apparent in Mont Sainte-Victoire and the Viaduct of the Arc River Valley (29.100.64) and The Gulf of Marseille Seen from L'Estaque (29.100.67). In Gardanne (57.181), he painted the landscape with intense volumetric patterns of geometric rhythms most pronounced in the houses. This picture anticipates the Cubism of Georges Braque (1882–1963) and Pablo Picasso (1881–1973), especially Braque's impressions of L'Estaque of about 1908.

In 1890, Cézanne began a series of five pictures of Provençal peasants playing cards. Widely celebrated as among the finest figure compositions completed by the artist, The Card Players (61.101.1) demonstrates his system of color gradations to build form and create a three-dimensional quality in the figures. Continuing on this theme of the rural laborer, Seated Peasant (1997.60.2) celebrates the dignity of working-class citizens of Third Republic France (1870–1940).

In 1895, the dealer Ambroise Vollard (1867–1939) held Cézanne's first one-man exhibition at his gallery in Paris. Although the exhibition met with some skepticism, Cézanne's reputation as a great artist grew quickly, and he was discussed and promoted by a small circle of enthusiasts, including the art historian and critic Bernard Berenson (1865–1959), American painter Mary Cassatt (1844–1926), and collectors Henry Osborne Havemeyer (1848–1907) and his wife Louisine Havemeyer (1855–1929). Posthumous exhibitions at Galerie Bernheim-Jeune and the Salon d'Automne in 1907 in Paris established Cézanne's artistic legacy.

Portrait of Ginevra de' Benci

This oil on wood painting is one of Da Vinci's very early works, and is usually dated as c. 1474, a time during which Leonardo was still with Andrea Verrocchio, and had been for about eight years. It was long debated as to whether Leonardo was behind this work; acceptance came with the realisation that during the period of 1470-1480 there were no other painters capable of such an impressive painting.



The lady is normally accepted to be Ginevra de' Benci, one of the most gifted intellectuals of her time. Historians generally consider the portrait was commissioned to celebrate the occasion of her marriage on January 15th, 1474 to Luigi Niccolini. She was seventeen; he was twice her age. Marriage portraits were a common practice at the time and most Florentine portraits of women were painted for just this reason.

A number of things support this theory. On the reverse of the portrait is a heraldic motif consisting of a sprig of juniper encircled by a wreath of laurel and palm, along with the motto "Beauty adorns Virtue". The juniper plants are a symbol of chastity, highly appropriate for a marriage portrait, as well as being a pun -- in Italian -- on her name (the Italian name for juniper being ginevra).

As with all of Leonardo's portraits there are disagreements over this one and some researchers feel it may have been commissioned by Bernardo Bembo, the Venetian Ambassador to Florence from 1474--76, and again in 1478--80. Bembo and Ginevra, both married, were known to have had a platonic affair, quite an accepted convention.

Unlike Leonardo's other portraits of women, this lady looks sulky, unforgiving and haughty; this is emphasised by the slightly smaller cast of one eye, making her look withdrawn. Her left eye seems to gaze directly at us while the right looks beyond to some invisible point. Like other Florentine women of the period Ginevra has shaved off her eyebrows (this is also obvious in the Mona Lisa). Maybe her expression indicates she was not entirely happy regarding her forthcoming marriage. In later life she was to go into self-inflicted exile in an attempt to recover from a severe illness; she was also tormented by an ill-fated love affair.

The marble appearance of her complexion -- smoothed with Leonardo's own hand -- is framed by the undulating ringlets of her hair. This then contrasts beautifully with the halo of spikes from the juniper bush. Leonardo veiled the background of this portrait in a thin veil of mist known as sfumato (literal translation: "turned to vapour"); this being created with overlaid oil glazes. Though Leonardo did not create this effect he become well-known for his skillful use of it.

At some point this canvas has had as much as on one-third cut from the bottom (estimates put the amount removed at around nine centimetres). This area would have been large enough to show her hands, folded or crossed, and resting in her lap. Their loss is a great shame as no one painted hands as beautifully as Leonardo.

Luckily for art fans the loss may not be complete. The silverpoint drawing, to be found in the Royal Library at Windsor, could well be a sketch done in preparation for the Ginevra portrait. Mentally placing these fingers on the painting shows us that the fingers of her right hand would have been touching the laces of her bodice. This area of the portrait has been repainted and in normal circumstances an x-ray might well reveal the missing fingers -- if that same area had not been damaged and a new piece added. As a side note, this same hand sketch is thought to have inspired Escher's very famous hand drawing.

Mutilation and repairs aside, this portrait is the best preserved of Leonardo's early works. This was the only privately-owned painting by Leonardo. In 1967 it became the first one of his paintings to join an American museum when the National Gallery in Washington bought it for a record five million dollars.

Last Supper

Big Is It?

It's huge, really - 460 x 880 cm (15 x 29 feet). It covers an entire large wall, very unlike reproductions sized to hang neatly behind one's sofa.

Where Is It?

The original mural is on a wall of the refectory (dining hall) in the Convent of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Italy.

If you'd care to see a reproduction or fifty, they're easily found. As an image, Last Supper has been put on everything from mirrors, to mouse pads, to musical pillows. If Leonardo were still around, he'd be earning billions of (insert your currency here) on licensing fees alone.

How Long Did it Take Leonardo to Paint This?

He began working on it in 1495, and finished Last Supper in 1498. This is worth noting, as Leonardo was a known procrastinator with a marked tendency to leave projects unfinished.

Why Is the Composition Remarkable?

First, because the disciples are all displaying very human, identifiable emotions. "The Last Supper" had certainly been painted before. Leonardo's version, though, was the first to depict real people acting like real people.

Secondly, and of major importance - the technical perspective in Last Supper is incredible! You can see that every single element of the painting directs one's attention straight to the midpoint of the composition, Christ's head. It's arguably the greatest example of one point perspective ever created.

What Does Last Supper Depict?

Last Supper is Leonardo's visual interpretation of an event chronicled in all four of the Gospels (books in the Christian New Testament). The evening before Christ was betrayed by one of his disciples, he gathered them together to eat, tell them he knew what was coming and wash their feet (a gesture symbolizing that all were equal under the eyes of the Lord). As they ate and drank together, Christ gave the disciples explicit instructions on how to eat and drink in the future, in remembrance of him. It was the first celebration of the Eucharist, a ritual still performed.

Specifically, Last Supper depicts the next few seconds in this story after Christ dropped the bombshell that one disciple would betray him before sunrise, and all twelve have reacted to the news with different degrees of horror, anger and shock.

Who's in It?

Looking across the picture from left to right:

• Bartholomew, James Minor and Andrew form a group of three. All are aghast, Andrew to the point of holding his hands up in a "stop!" gesture.

• Judas, Peter and John form the next group of three. Judas, you will note, has his face in shadow and is clutching a small bag (of silver?). Peter is visibly angry and a feminine-looking John seems about to swoon.

• Christ is the calm in the midst of the storm.

• Thomas, James Major and Philip are next. Thomas is clearly agitated, James Major stunned and Philip seems to be seeking clarification.

• Matthew, Thaddeus and Simon comprise the last group of three figures. It appears that, when a situation turns ugly, Simon is the "go to" guy for explanations.

Why Is it Falling Apart?

Leonardo, always the inventor, tried using new materials for Last Supper. Instead of using tempera on wet plaster (the preferred method of fresco painting, and one which had worked successfully for centuries), he thought he'd give using dry plaster a whirl. His experiment resulted in a more varied palette, which was Leonardo's intent. What he hadn't taken into account (because, who knew?) was that this method wasn't at all durable. The painted plaster began to flake off the wall almost immediately, and people have been attempting to restore it ever since.

Why Doesn't Jesus Have Feet?

Rest assured, Leonardo intended for Christ to have feet and, in fact, painted them. Around 1650, some unnamed, woefully misguided soul - on a mission to insert another door into the refectory - apparently decided that the only logical spot for said door was smack dab in the middle of that wall. We probably shouldn't grumble and just consider ourselves lucky that he wasn't engineering windows.

I Heard This Story About Last Supper. Is it True?

Do you mean the story in which Leonardo first paints Jesus Christ, after searching many months for the perfect model? And then, years and years later, after painting all eleven other disciples, has an even more grueling search for the perfect model for Judas? And - amazingly - the same person ends up being the model for both? That story?

No, it's not true, and for so many reasons (all of which are detailed in a piece at Snopes). It's a neat bit of fiction, though, complete with a moral.

San Giovanni Battista

"San Giovanni Battista" (Saint Joseph) c.1513-15.

Madonna and Child with a Pomegranate

The workshop of a Renaissance artist was both studio and school, where apprentices were trained to paint in the style of the master. Since large commissions required the efforts of many painters, backgrounds, still-life details, and secondary figures were often painted by assistants. A master might also give lesser commissions entirely over to his assistants, simply approving the work as meeting his standard. It is often difficult to distinguish the work of the master from that of talented assistants whose individual styles were not yet fully developed.

This small devotional panel is painted in the style of Andrea del Verrocchio but is the work of one of his students, Lorenzo di Credi, who inherited the workshop when Andrea died. For inspiration Credi seems also to have looked to a fellow student—Leonardo da Vinci. This madonna is modeled after one by Leonardo; in fact, the painting was once thought to be an early work by Leonardo. But the colors differ from Leonardo’s subdued palette, and the landscape lacks his fanciful mountains. Notice, too, the Virgin's left hand, which holds a pomegranate, symbol of the Resurrection. In Leonardo's painting she holds a carnation. Credi failed to alter the position of her fingers, leaving her with an unnatural gesture unthinkable from such a keen observer of nature as Leonardo.

Madonna Litta

Madonna Litta 1481-97

The attribution of this painting to Leonardo remains controversial. It is now generally agreed that while it may have been based on designs by Leonardo, it was probably brought to completion by Giovanni Antonio Boltraffio, who was a pupil of Leonardo’s in the master’s Milanese workshop under the master’s supervision.

This small painting of the Madonna and Child was a popular image type in Italy during the 15th century and was probably intended for private devotion. The overall design with the Madonna and Child situated within a dark interior with windows providing a view of a distant mountain landscape behind is typical of earlier paintings by Leonardo, such as the Madonna and Child with a Carnation and the so-called Benois Madonna.

However, the harsh outlines of the forms and the rather formulaic landscape that lacks atmosphere indicate that the painting is not the work of Leonardo himself, but that of his assistant Boltraffio, who employed a figural type similar to that of the Christchild in other paintings.

The study of a Woman’s head almost in profile, a drawing in silverpoint on greenish prepared paper by Leonardo, probably based on a life model, seems to have been used for the modelling of the Virgin’s head, implying that Leonardo was at least involved in the initial design of the painting.